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1 stable lack
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > stable lack
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2 stable lack
Математика: устойчивая лакуна -
3 stable lack
мат. -
4 lack
1) недостаток, нехватка || испытывать недостаток2) отсутствие; потеря; утрата• -
5 устойчивая лакуна
stable lack мат.Русско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > устойчивая лакуна
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6 устойчивая лакуна
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > устойчивая лакуна
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7 устойчивая лакуна
Mathematics: stable lack -
8 stall
I sto:l noun1) (a compartment in a cowshed etc: cattle stalls.)2) (a small shop or a counter or table on which goods are displayed for sale: He bought a newspaper at the bookstall on the station; traders' stalls.)•- stalls
II
1. sto:l verb1) ((of a car etc or its engine) to stop suddenly through lack of power, braking too quickly etc: The car stalled when I was halfway up the hill.)2) ((of an aircraft) to lose speed while flying and so go out of control: The plane stalled just after take-off and crashed on to the runway.)3) (to cause (a car etc, or aircraft) to do this: Use the brake gently or you'll stall the engine.)
2. noun(a dangerous loss of flying speed in an aircraft, causing it to drop: The plane went into a stall.)
III sto:l verb(to avoid making a definite decision in order to give oneself more time.)stall n puesto / tenderetetr[stɔːl]\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLstalling tactics maniobras nombre femenino plural dilatorias————————tr[stɔːl]2 (for animal - stable) establo; (- stable compartment) compartimiento (en un establo)3 (row of seats) sillería4 (small room, compartment) compartimiento1 SMALLAUTOMOBILES/SMALL hacer calar2 (put animal in stall) encerrar en establo; (keep in stall) guardar en establo1 SMALLAUTOMOBILES/SMALL calarse, pararse1 (in theatre) platea f sing\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLchoir stalls sillería del corofinger stall dedil nombre masculinoshower stall duchastall ['stɔl] vt1) : parar (un motor)2) delay: entretener (a una persona), demorarstall vi1) : pararse (dícese de un motor)2) delay: demorar, andar con rodeosstall n1) : compartimiento m (de un establo)2) : puesto m (en un mercado, etc.)n.• butaca s.f.• cajón s.m.• caseta s.f.• escaño s.m.• establo s.m.• luneta s.f.• pesebre s.m.• puesto s.m.• sillería s.f.v.• atascar v.• encerrar en establo v.• estancar v.• pararse v.• pasar v.• pastelear v.stɔːl
I
1) ( in market) puesto m, tenderete m2)a) stalls pl (in theater, movie house) (BrE) platea f, patio m de butacas, luneta f (Col, Méx)b) ( in church)3) ( in stable) compartimiento m
II
1.
1) \<\<engine/car\>\> pararse, ahogarse, calarse (Esp), atascarse* (Méx); \<\<plane\>\> entrar en pérdida2) ( come to standstill) \<\<talks\>\> estancarse*, llegar* a un punto muerto or a un impasse3) ( play for time) (colloq)quit stalling — no andes con rodeos or con evasivas
stalling tactics — maniobras fpl dilatorias
2.
vt1) \<\<engine/car\>\> parar, ahogar*, calar (Esp), atascar* (Méx); \<\<plane\>\> hacer* entrar en pérdida2) \<\<negotiations/growth\>\> paralizar*3) ( delay) (colloq) entretener*[stɔːl]1. N1) (Agr) (=stable) establo m ; (=manger) pesebre m ; (for single horse etc) casilla f2) (in market etc) puesto m ; (in fair) caseta f, casilla f ; (=newspaper stall) quiosco m, puesto m (esp LAm)- set out one's stall3) (Brit)(Theat)4) (in church) silla f de coro2. VT1) [+ car, plane] parar, calar2) [+ person] entretener3. VI1) [car] pararse; [plane] perder velocidadwe stalled on a steep hill — quedamos parados en una cuesta abrupta, se nos atascó el motor en una cuesta abrupta
2) (fig) (=delay) andar con rodeos, esquivarstop stalling! — ¡déjate de evasivas!
* * *[stɔːl]
I
1) ( in market) puesto m, tenderete m2)a) stalls pl (in theater, movie house) (BrE) platea f, patio m de butacas, luneta f (Col, Méx)b) ( in church)3) ( in stable) compartimiento m
II
1.
1) \<\<engine/car\>\> pararse, ahogarse, calarse (Esp), atascarse* (Méx); \<\<plane\>\> entrar en pérdida2) ( come to standstill) \<\<talks\>\> estancarse*, llegar* a un punto muerto or a un impasse3) ( play for time) (colloq)quit stalling — no andes con rodeos or con evasivas
stalling tactics — maniobras fpl dilatorias
2.
vt1) \<\<engine/car\>\> parar, ahogar*, calar (Esp), atascar* (Méx); \<\<plane\>\> hacer* entrar en pérdida2) \<\<negotiations/growth\>\> paralizar*3) ( delay) (colloq) entretener* -
9 stall
I 1. [stɔːl]1) (at market, fair) banco m., bancarella f.; (newspaper stand) chiosco m. dei giornali2) (in stable) posta f.3) equit. gabbia f. di partenza4) arch. (in church) stallo m., scanno m.5) (cubicle) (for shower) box m. doccia6) AE (parking space) posto m. auto2. II 1. [stɔːl] 2.1) [car, driver] fermarsi; [ engine] arrestarsi2) [ plane] andare in stallo3) (stagnate) [ market] fermarsi; [ talks] arrivare a un punto mortoIII 1. [stɔːl] 2.verbo intransitivo (play for time) temporeggiare* * *I [sto:l] noun1) (a compartment in a cowshed etc: cattle stalls.)2) (a small shop or a counter or table on which goods are displayed for sale: He bought a newspaper at the bookstall on the station; traders' stalls.)•- stallsII 1. [sto:l] verb1) ((of a car etc or its engine) to stop suddenly through lack of power, braking too quickly etc: The car stalled when I was halfway up the hill.)2) ((of an aircraft) to lose speed while flying and so go out of control: The plane stalled just after take-off and crashed on to the runway.)3) (to cause (a car etc, or aircraft) to do this: Use the brake gently or you'll stall the engine.)2. noun(a dangerous loss of flying speed in an aircraft, causing it to drop: The plane went into a stall.)III [sto:l] verb(to avoid making a definite decision in order to give oneself more time.)* * *[stɔːl]1. n1) (Agr: stable) stalla, box m inv, (Brit: in market) bancarella, banco, (at exhibition, fair) stand m inva newspaper/flower stall — chiosco del giornalaio/del fioraio
2) Theatre3) Aer stallo2. vt(plane) far andare in stallo3. vi1) (car, engine) bloccarsi, (plane) andare in stallo2)(
fig: delay) to stall for time — prendere tempo, temporeggiare* * *I 1. [stɔːl]1) (at market, fair) banco m., bancarella f.; (newspaper stand) chiosco m. dei giornali2) (in stable) posta f.3) equit. gabbia f. di partenza4) arch. (in church) stallo m., scanno m.5) (cubicle) (for shower) box m. doccia6) AE (parking space) posto m. auto2. II 1. [stɔːl] 2.1) [car, driver] fermarsi; [ engine] arrestarsi2) [ plane] andare in stallo3) (stagnate) [ market] fermarsi; [ talks] arrivare a un punto mortoIII 1. [stɔːl] 2.verbo intransitivo (play for time) temporeggiare -
10 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
11 plateauing
HRthe process of reaching a phase where performance is stable. Plateauing may be experienced by an employee due to a lack of ambition or ability or a lack of opportunity for promotion within the organizational hierarchy. One form of plateau is the management threshold. -
12 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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13 stall
I 1. noun1) Stand, der2. transitive verb[front] stalls — Parkett, das
abwürgen (ugs.) [Motor]3. intransitive verb[Motor:] stehen bleibenII 1. intransitive verb 2. transitive verbblockieren [Gesetz, Fortschritt]; aufhalten [Feind, Fortschritt]* * *I [sto:l] noun1) (a compartment in a cowshed etc: cattle stalls.) die Box2) (a small shop or a counter or table on which goods are displayed for sale: He bought a newspaper at the bookstall on the station; traders' stalls.) der Stand•- academic.ru/118574/stalls">stallsII 1. [sto:l] verb1) ((of a car etc or its engine) to stop suddenly through lack of power, braking too quickly etc: The car stalled when I was halfway up the hill.) absterben2) ((of an aircraft) to lose speed while flying and so go out of control: The plane stalled just after take-off and crashed on to the runway.) abrutschen3) (to cause (a car etc, or aircraft) to do this: Use the brake gently or you'll stall the engine.) abwürgen2. noun(a dangerous loss of flying speed in an aircraft, causing it to drop: The plane went into a stall.) der SackflugIII [sto:l] verb(to avoid making a definite decision in order to give oneself more time.) Zeit schinden* * *I. nbook/market/newspaper \stall Bücher-/Markt-/Zeitungsstand mpig \stall Schweinestall mshower \stall Nasszelle f, Duschkabine fthe canon's \stall der Sitz des Domherrnchoir \stalls Chorgestühl nt8. (engine)the car's in a \stall das Auto springt nicht anII. vi2. (come to standstill) zum Stillstand kommento \stall for time Zeit gewinnenIII. vtto \stall a car/a motor ein Auto/einen Motor abwürgen2. (delay)▪ to \stall sth etw aufhalten [o verzögern]a tax increase may \stall economic recovery eine Steuererhöhung könnte die Erholung der Wirtschaft bremsen4. (put in enclosure)to \stall an animal ein Tier einsperren* * *[stɔːl]1. n2) (at market etc) Stand min the stalls — im Parkett
stalls — Chorgestühl nt
2. vt1) horse, cow einstellen2) (AUT) abwürgen; (AVIAT) überziehen3. vi1) (engine) absterben; (AVIAT) überziehen2) (= delay) Zeit schinden (inf)stop stalling! — hören Sie auf auszuweichen or drum herumzureden (inf)!
to stall for time — versuchen, Zeit zu gewinnen or zu schinden (inf)
* * *stall1 [stɔːl]A sb) Stall m2. (Verkaufs)Stand m, (Markt) Bude f:stall money Standgeld n3. (Chor-, Kirchen) Stuhl ma) Parkettplatz mb) pl Parkett n6. (Dusch- etc) Ecke f7. (markierter) Parkplatz8. FLUG Sackflug mB v/t1. Tierea) in Boxen unterbringenb) in Boxen mästenc) FLUG überziehenC v/i1. stecken bleiben (Wagen etc)2. absterben (Motor)3. FLUG abrutschenstall2 [stɔːl]A s1. Ausflucht f, Hinhaltemanöver n2. US Komplize m/Komplizin f eines Taschendiebs/einer TaschendiebinB v/i1. a) Ausflüchte machen, sich nicht festlegen (wollen)2. SPORT besonders USa) sich nicht voll ausgebenb) auf Zeit spielena) jemanden hinhalten,b) etwas hinauszögern* * *I 1. noun1) Stand, der2. transitive verb[front] stalls — Parkett, das
abwürgen (ugs.) [Motor]3. intransitive verb[Motor:] stehen bleibenII 1. intransitive verb 2. transitive verbblockieren [Gesetz, Fortschritt]; aufhalten [Feind, Fortschritt]* * *(aeronautics) n.Steilflug m. n.Bude -n f.Stand ¨-e m.Verkaufsstand m. -
14 отношение отношени·е
1) attitudeбезучастное отношение — indifference, detached attitude
бережное отношение к людям — regard for / consideration for the people
добросовестное отношение к своим обязанностям — conscientious attitude to / towards one's duties
негативное / отрицательное отношение — negative attitude
непредвзятое / объективное отношение — unbias(s)ed attitude
непримиримое отношение — uncompromising / irreconcilable attitude (to)
пристраст ное отношение — partial / bias(s)ed attitude
формальное отношение — formal / conventional attitude
2) мн— relations, relationshipвосстановить отношения — to reestablish / to resume / to restore relations
запутать отношения — to muddle / to blur / to dim relations / relationship
испортить отношения — to damage / to upset relations
испортить отношения между странами — to harm / to damage relations between the countries
крепить / упрочить отношения — cement; relations
нанести ущерб отношениям — to damage / to harm / to impair / to upset relations
омрачать / портить отношения — to mar relations
перестраивать отношения — to recast / to restructure relations
поддерживать / сохранять отношения — to maintain relations
порвать / разорвать отношения — to break off / to disrupt / to rupture / to sever relations
улучшать отношения — to improve / to repair relations
установить отношения — to enter into / to establish relations
установить хорошие отношения с представителями прессы / с прессой — to cultivate reporters
взаимовыгодные отношения — mutually advantageous / beneficial relations
внешние отношения — external / foreign relations
враждебные отношения — hostility / hostile relations
денежные отношения — monetary / money relations
дипломатические отношения — diplomatic intercourse / relations
полные дипломатические отношения, в полном объеме — full diplomatic relations
акты об установлении дипломатических отношений — official papers on establishment of diplomatic missions
разрыв дипломатических отношений — breach / breaking off / rupture / severance of diplomatic relations
формальное установление дипломатических отношений — formal initiation / establishment of diplomatic relations
добрососедские отношения — good-neighbourly / good-neighbour relations
развивать добрососедские отношения — to develop good-neighbourly / good-neighbour relations
дружественные отношения — amicable / friendly relations
межгосударственные отношения — interstate / state-to-state relations
общепризнанные нормы межгосударственных отношений — generally recognized norms of relations between states
международные отношения — international intercourse, international / foreign relations
равноправные / справедливые международные отношения — equitable international relations
имитация / моделирование международных отношение — simulation of international relations
межнациональные отношения — interethnic relations, international relations
мирные / миролюбивые отношения — peace / peaceful relations
принцип многосторонних отношений (напр. торговых между несколькими странами) — multilateralism
напряжённые / натянутые отношения — tense / strained relations
совершенствование общественных отношений — perfecting / refinement of social relations
торговые отношения — trade / commercial relations
взаимовыгодные экономические отношения — mutually advatageous / beneficial economic relations
оздоровление международных экономических отношений — normalization of international economic relations
налаживание отношений — development of relations; (с избирателями, печатью и т.п.) fence-mending
отношения взаимовыгодного сотрудничества — relations of mutually advantageous / beneficial cooperation
отношения между странами значительно ухудшились — the relations between the countries are at a low ebb
отношения, построенные на страхе — relations built on fear
охлаждение в отношение ях — cooldown / chill in relations
содействовать / способствовать развитию отношений — to further / to promote relations
разрыв отношений — breaking off / rupture / severance of relations
в поисках / целях улучшения отношений — in pursuit of improved relations
ухудшение отношений — aggravation / deterioration in / of relations
3)4)в отношении чего-л. — in respect of smth.
во всех отношениях — in all respects / in every respect
по отношению к чему-л. — with respect to smth.
Russian-english dctionary of diplomacy > отношение отношени·е
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15 Behr, Fritz Bernhard
[br]b. 9 October 1842 Berlin, Germanyd. 25 February 1927[br]German (naturalized British in 1876) engineer, promoter of the Lartigue monorail system.[br]Behr trained as an engineer in Britain and had several railway engineering appointments before becoming associated with C.F.M.-T. Lartigue in promoting the Lartigue monorail system in the British Isles. In Lartigue's system, a single rail was supported on trestles; vehicles ran on the rail, their bodies suspended pannier-fashion, stabilized by horizontal rollers running against light guide rails fixed to the sides of the trestles. Behr became Managing Director of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which in 1888 opened its Lartigue system line between those two places in the south-west of Ireland. Three locomotives designed by J.T.A. Mallet were built for the line by Hunslet Engine Company, each with two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. Coaches and wagons likewise were in two parts. Technically the railway was successful, but lack of traffic caused the company to go bankrupt in 1897: the railway continued to operate until 1924.Meanwhile Behr had been thinking in terms far more ambitious than a country branch line. Railway speeds of 150mph (240km/h) or more then lay far in the future: engineers were uncertain whether normal railway vehicles would even be stable at such speeds. Behr was convinced that a high-speed electric vehicle on a substantial Lartigue monorail track would be stable. In 1897 he demonstrated such a vehicle on a 3mile (4.8km) test track at the Brussels International Exhibition. By keeping the weight of the motors low, he was able to place the seats above rail level. Although the generating station provided by the Exhibition authorities never operated at full power, speeds over 75mph (120 km/h) were achieved.Behr then promoted the Manchester-Liverpool Express Railway, on which monorail trains of this type running at speeds up to 110mph (177km/h) were to link the two cities in twenty minutes. Despite strong opposition from established railway companies, an Act of Parliament authorizing it was made in 1901. The Act also contained provision for the Board of Trade to require experiments to prove the system's safety. In practice this meant that seven miles of line, and a complete generating station to enable trains to travel at full speed, must be built before it was known whether the Board would give its approval for the railway or not. Such a condition was too severe for the scheme to attract investors and it remained stillborn.[br]Further ReadingH.Fayle, 1946, The Narrow Gauge Railways of Ireland, Greenlake Publications, Part 2, ch. 2 (describes the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway and Behr's work there).D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions ofthe Newcomen Society 55 (covers mainly the high speed lines).See also: Brennan, LouisPJGR -
16 balance
ˈbæləns
1. сущ.
1) весы (любой конструкции) quick balance Roman balance
2) равновесие( в прямом и переносном смысле) balance of forces balance of nature balance of terror balance of power keep one's balance lose one's balance be off balance the strategic balance favourable balance unfavourable balance
3) элк. баланс (соотношение мощностей правого и левого канала в стереозаписи)
4) то же, что Libra
5) противовес( в прямом и переносном смысле)
6) маятник;
балансир, баланс ( в механизмах)
7) соотношение сил (необязательно равновесное), характеристика этого соотношения
8) коммерч. баланс, сальдо bank balance strike a balance credit balance debit balance trade balance trial balance balance in hand balance due balance of payments balance of trade
9) амер. разг. остаток( по коммерческим операциям) Syn: left-over
10) балласт( по ошибочной ассоциации с ballast) ∙ - balance weight be in the balance tremble in the balance swing in the balance hang in the balance hold the balance upon a fair balance the beam of a balance balance-yard balance-fish balance-knife balance-man balance-master balance-mistress - balance-sheet balance-seat balance-step the balance of advantage lies with him ≈ на его стороне значительные преимущества to be weighed in the balance and found wanting( Дан., 5-
27) ≈ не оправдать надежд
2. гл.
1) сохранять равновесие, быть в равновесии;
уравновешивать( что-л.;
что-л. чем-л.) One thing balances another. ≈ Одно компенсирует другое. balance oneself balance disadvantage by smth. to balance disadvantage with smth.
2) взвешивать, обдумывать;
сопоставлять( with, against) to balance а trip to the mountains against the chance of a summer job ≈ решать, что выбрать: поездку в горы или возможность получить работу на лето We must balance the two proposals. ≈ Нам надо взвесить достоинства этих двух предложений. balance income with expenditure
3) колебаться, медлить He balanced in indecision. ≈ Он медлил в нерешительности.
4) балансировать, качаться Balanced herself half over the balcony-rail. ≈ Она наполовину перевесилась через перила балкона.
5) коммерч. подводить баланс the accounts don't balance ≈ счета не сходятся balance one's accounts balance outвесы - quick /Roman/ * безмен, пружинные весы - assay * пробирные весы чаша весов - to tip the * склонять чашу весов, давать перевес равновесие;
состояние равновесия - stable * устойчивое равновесие (тж. в спорте) - * of nature природное равновесие - off * неустойчивый, шаткий - to maintain a strict * of forces строго поддерживать равновесие сил - to hold the * even сохранять равновесие - to keep /to hold, to preserve/ one's * удерживать /сохранять/ равновесие - to lose * потерять равновесие - to make out the * уравновешивать, приводить в состояние равновесия - the blow threw him off his * удар сбил его с ног душевное равновесие;
спокойствие;
уравновешенность - to be off one's * потерять равновесие /душевный покой/ - to lose one's * выйти из себя, потерять равновесие - she was thrown off her * with anger она была вне себя от негодования - he kept his * even at the most trying moments он не терял самообладания даже в самые трудные минуты пропорциональность;
гармоническое сочетание - the * of colours гармония красок (специальное) баланс - heat * (физическое) тепловой баланс решающий фактор;
решающее влияние или значение - to hold the * осуществлять контроль, распоряжаться - the * of advantage lies with him на его стороне значительные преимущества - the * of out fortune rests with him наша судьба в его руках противовес, компенсатор;
гиря баланс (шест канатоходца) маятник, балансир, баланс (в часовом механизме) (финансовое) баланс;
сальдо;
остаток - adverse * пассивный баланс - trade *, * of trade торговый баланс - favourable * активный баланс - sterling *s стерлинговые счета, стерлинговые авуары - * of payments платежный баланс - *s with foreign banks остатки на счетах в заграничных банках, иностранные авуары - * in hand денежная наличность, наличность кассы - * of an account остаток счета - on * после подведения баланса - to strike the * подводить баланс;
подводить итоги - to bring accounts to a * составлять сводный баланс( разговорное) остаток - he spent the * of his life in travel остаток жизни он провел в странствиях - he gave the * of his dinner to the dog он бросил остатки обеда собаке (B.) (астрономия) Весы (созвездие и знак зодиака) (спортивное) брусья;
стойка - one hand * стойка на одной руке > upon /on/ (a) * по зрелом размышлении, хорошо взвесив обстоятельства;
с учетом всего вышесказанного;
в конечном счете, в итоге - to be in the * быть нерешенным - the future is in the * будущее неясно - to swing /to be, to tremble/ in the * висеть на волоске, быть в критическом положении;
колебаться, сомневаться - to hang in the * быть брошенным на чашу весов - to weigh in the * взвешивать, обсуждать, оценивать (доводы, достоинства и т. п.) - to be weighed in the * and found wanting не выдержать проверки - to turn the * склонить чашу весов - a moth will turn the * мелочь /случайность/ может изменить все балансировать, сохранять равновесие, быть в равновесии - do these scales *? чаши весов уравновешены? балансировать - the little boy was balancing himself on the edge of a chair мальчик качался /балансировал/ на краю стула приводить в равновесие;
уравновешивать, уравнивать - to * foreign trade (экономика) сбалансировать внешнююторговлю - the teams were perfectly *d силы команд были совершенно равны удовлетворять потребность( в товаре) (бухгалтерское) подсчитывать, подытоживать;
сводить, заключать, закрывать( счета, книги) ;
погашать;
подбивать баланс - to * an account уравнять /погасить/ счет - to * the books закрыть /забалансировать/ (бухгалтерские) книги - to compute and * one's gain and loss подводить итог приходу и расходу сводиться, балансироваться - the accounts don't * счета не сходятся взвешивать, определять вес (приблизительно) взвешивать, обдумывать;
сопоставлять - to * probabilities сопоставлять возможности - she *d her answer to the sum with his она сравнила свой и его ответы на задачу медлить, колебаться - a disposition to * and temporize склонность к медлительности и колебаниям - to * in indecision быть в нерешительности (by, with, against) противопоставлять, нейтрализовать, компенсировать - to * a disadvantage by /with/ smth. восполнять ущерб чем-л.;
нейтрализовать вред - the advantages more than * the disadvantages достоинства вполне покрывают недостатки - her lack of politeness was *d by her readiness to help недостаток вежливости сглаживался у нее готовностью помочь( специальное) добавлять недостающее количество делать балансе (в танце)account ~ остаток на счете account ~ остаток при расчетеto ~ one's accounts подытоживать счета;
the accounts don't balance счета не сходятсяadverse ~ неблагоприятный платежный баланс adverse ~ неблагоприятный торговый баланс adverse ~ пассивный платежный баланс adverse ~ пассивный торговый балансadverse ~ of payments неблагоприятный платежный баланс adverse ~ of payments пассивный платежный балансadverse ~ of trade неблагоприятный торговый баланс adverse ~ of trade пассивный торговый балансadverse cash ~ неблагоприятный баланс наличности adverse cash ~ пассивный баланс кассовой наличностиbalance ком. баланс, сальдо (тж. balance in hand) ;
balance of payments платежный баланс;
balance of trade активный баланс (внешней торговли) ;
to strike a balance подводить баланс;
перен. подводить итоги ~ баланс, сальдо, остаток ~ баланс ~ балансировать;
сохранять равновесие, быть в равновесии;
уравновешивать ~ балансировать ~ (B). Весы (созвездие и знак зодиака) ~ весы;
quick (или Roman) balance безмен, пружинные весы ~ весы ~ взвешивать, обдумывать;
сопоставлять (with, against) ~ закрывать счета ~ колебаться (between) ~ компенсировать ~ маятник;
балансир, баланс (в часовом механизме) ~ медлить, колебаться ~ нейтрализовать ~ разг. остаток ~ остаток ~ погашать ~ ком. подводить баланс ~ подводить итог ~ подсчитывать ~ приводить в равновесие ~ пропорциональность ~ противовес ~ равновесие;
balance of forces равновесие сил;
balance of power политическое равновесие '(между государствами) ~ равновесие ~ решающий фактор ~ сальдировать ~ сальдо ~ состояние счета ~ уравнивать ~ уравновешиватьthe ~ of advantage lies with him на его стороне значительные преимущества~ of an account остаток на счете ~ of an account остаток при расчете ~ of an account сальдо счета~ of current accounts сальдо текущих счетов~ of current transactions сальдо по текущим сделкам~ равновесие;
balance of forces равновесие сил;
balance of power политическое равновесие '(между государствами)~ of freight сальдо фрахта~ of order остаток заказаbalance ком. баланс, сальдо (тж. balance in hand) ;
balance of payments платежный баланс;
balance of trade активный баланс (внешней торговли) ;
to strike a balance подводить баланс;
перен. подводить итоги ~ of payments платежный баланс~ of payments disequilibrium неравновесие платежного баланса~ of payments equilibrium равновесие платежного баланса~ of payments figures итог платежного баланса~ of payments gap дефицит платежного баланса~ of payments statistics статистические данные платежного баланса~ of payments surplus активное сальдо платежного баланса~ равновесие;
balance of forces равновесие сил;
balance of power политическое равновесие '(между государствами) ~ of power равновесие сил ~ of power соотношение сил~ of services баланс услугbalance ком. баланс, сальдо (тж. balance in hand) ;
balance of payments платежный баланс;
balance of trade активный баланс (внешней торговли) ;
to strike a balance подводить баланс;
перен. подводить итоги ~ of trade торговый баланс~ of trade improvement улучшение торгового баланса~ of trade surplus активное сальдо торгового баланса~ of unclassifiable transactions остаток от неклассифицируемых операций~ on current account остаток на текущем счете~ on giro account остаток на жиросчете~ on investment income сальдо доходов от инвестирования~ on long-term capital account остаток на долгосрочном счете движения капитала~ on short-term capital account остаток на краткосрочном счете движения капитала~ on transfer account остаток на жиросчетеto ~ one's accounts подытоживать счета;
the accounts don't balance счета не сходятся~ the accounts выводить сальдо счетов ~ the accounts закрывать счета ~ the accounts определять остаток на счетах~ the books закрывать бухгалтерские книги~ to be carried forward сальдо к переносу на следующую страницуbank ~ баланс банка bank ~ остаток на банковском счете bank ~ остаток счета в банке bank ~ сальдо банковского счетаto be (или to tremble, to swing, to hang) in the ~ висеть на волоске, быть в критическом положенииto be off one's ~ потерять душевное равновесиеto be weighed in the ~ and found wanting не оправдать надеждcarry down a ~ бухг. делать перенос сальдоclassified trial ~ систематизированный предварительный баланс с группировкой статей по форме финансового отчетаcleared ~ окончательное сальдоcommencement ~ баланс на начало периодаcredit ~ кредитовое сальдо credit ~ кредитовый баланс credit ~ кредитовый остаток credit ~ остаток кредита credit ~ отрицательное сальдоcurrent external ~ текущее состояние внешних расчетовexternal ~ состояние внешних расчетовfavourable trade ~ активный торговый баланс favourable trade ~ благоприятный торговый балансgiro ~ жиробалансgross investments ~ баланс валовых капиталовложенийto hold the ~ распоряжатьсяin ~ на балансеinitial ~ исходный балансintercompany ~ межфирменный балансinvisibles ~ баланс невидимых статей балансаto keep one's ~ сохранять равновесие;
перен. оставаться спокойным;
to lose one's balance упасть, потерять равновесие;
перен. выйти из себяloan ~ остаток непогашенной ссудыto keep one's ~ сохранять равновесие;
перен. оставаться спокойным;
to lose one's balance упасть, потерять равновесие;
перен. выйти из себяmonthly ~ месячный балансnegative cash ~ отрицательный кассовый остатокnegative net ~ пассивный чистый балансnet ~ сальдо net ~ чистый остатокnet external ~ сальдо по внешним расчетамnonoil trade ~ торговый баланс без учета нефтиoff ~ несбалансированныйold ~ выч. сальдо за предыдущий периодon ~ на балансеpassive ~ неблагоприятный платежный баланс passive ~ пассивный платежный баланс passive: ~ фин. беспроцентный;
passive balance пассивное сальдо;
passive bonds амер. беспроцентные облигацииpositive ~ активный баланс positive ~ положительное сальдоpositive cash ~ положительный кассовый остаток~ весы;
quick (или Roman) balance безмен, пружинные весыredress the ~ восстанавливать равновесие redress: ~ исправлять;
восстанавливать;
to redress the balance восстанавливать равновесиеremit a ~ сальдировать счетrestore the ~ восстанавливать балансRoman ~ безменspring ~ пружинные весы, безменbalance ком. баланс, сальдо (тж. balance in hand) ;
balance of payments платежный баланс;
balance of trade активный баланс (внешней торговли) ;
to strike a balance подводить баланс;
перен. подводить итоги strike a ~ подводить балансsurplus ~ активный балансtorsion ~ мотор-весы, динамо-весыtotal ~ итоговый балансtotal current ~ итоговое сальдо по контокоррентуtrade ~ торговый баланс trade: ~ attr. торговый;
trade balance торговый балансtrial ~ предварительный баланс trial ~ пробный балансunfavourable trade ~ пассивный торговый балансupon a fair ~ по зрелом размышленииupset the ~ нарушать равновесие -
17 balance
1. [ʹbæləns] n1. 1) весыquick /Roman/ balance - безмен, пружинные весы
2) чаша весовto tip the balance - склонять чашу весов, давать перевес
2. 1) равновесие; состояние равновесияstable balance - устойчивое равновесие (тж. спорт.)
off balance - неустойчивый, шаткий
to maintain a strict balance of forces - строго поддерживать равновесие сил
to keep /to hold, to preserve/ one's balance - удерживать /сохранять/ равновесие [ср. тж. 3]
to make out the balance - уравновешивать, приводить в состояние равновесия
2) душевное равновесие; спокойствие; уравновешенностьto be off one's balance - потерять равновесие /душевный покой/
to lose one's balance - выйти из себя, потерять равновесие
she was thrown off her balance with anger - она была вне себя от негодования
he kept his balance even at the most trying moments - он не терял самообладания даже в самые трудные минуты
3) пропорциональность; гармоническое сочетание4) спец. балансheat [energy, neutron] balance - физ. тепловой [энергетический, нейтронный] баланс
3. решающий фактор; решающее влияние или значениеto old the balance - осуществлять контроль, распоряжаться [ср. тж. 2, 1)]
the balance of advantage lies with him - на его стороне значительные преимущества
4. 1) противовес, компенсатор; гиря2) баланс ( шест канатоходца)5. маятник, балансир, баланс ( в часовом механизме)6. 1) фин. баланс; сальдо; остатокtrade balance, balance of trade - торговый баланс
favourable [unfavourable] balance - активный [пассивный] баланс
sterling balances - стерлинговые счета, стерлинговые авуары
balances with foreign banks - остатки на счетах в заграничных банках, иностранные авуары
balance in hand - денежная наличность, наличность кассы
on balance - после подведения баланса [ср. тж. ♢ ]
to strike the balance - а) подводить баланс; б) подводить итоги
2) разг. остатокhe spent the balance of his life in travel - остаток жизни он провёл в странствиях
he gave the balance of his dinner to the dog - он бросил остатки обеда собаке
7. (Balance) астр. Весы ( созвездие и знак зодиака)8. спорт.1) брусья2) стойка♢
upon /on/ (a) balance - а) по зрелом размышлении, хорошо взвесив обстоятельства; с учётом всего вышесказанного; б) в конечном счёте, в итоге; [ср. тж. 6, 1)]to swing /to be, to tremble/ in the balance - а) висеть на волоске, быть в критическом положении; б) колебаться, сомневаться
to weigh in the balance - взвешивать, обсуждать, оценивать (доводы, достоинства и т. п.)
2. [ʹbæləns] va moth will turn the balance - мелочь /случайность/ может изменить всё
1. 1) балансировать, сохранять равновесие, быть в равновесииdo these scales balance? - чаши весов уравновешены?
2) refl балансироватьthe little boy was balancing himself on the edge of a chair - мальчик качался /балансировал/ на краю стула
2. 1) приводить в равновесие; уравновешивать, уравниватьto balance foreign trade - эк. сбалансировать внешнюю торговлю
2) удовлетворять потребность ( в товаре)3. бухг.1) подсчитывать, подытоживать; сводить, заключать, закрывать (счета, книги); погашать; подбивать балансto balance an account - уравнять /погасить/ счёт
to balance the books - закрыть /забалансировать/ (бухгалтерские) книги
to compute and balance one's gain and loss - подводить итог приходу и расходу
2) сводиться, балансироваться4. взвешивать, определять вес ( приблизительно)5. взвешивать, обдумывать; сопоставлятьshe balanced her answer to the sum with his - она сравнила свой и его ответы на задачу
6. медлить, колебатьсяa disposition to balance and temporize - склонность к медлительности и колебаниям
7. (by, with, against)1) противопоставлять, нейтрализовать, компенсироватьbalance disadvantage by /with/ smth. - восполнять ущерб чем-л.; нейтрализовать вред
the advantages more than balance the disadvantages - достоинства вполне покрывают недостатки
her lack of politeness was balanced by her readiness to help - недостаток вежливости сглаживался у неё готовностью помочь
2) спец. добавлять недостающее количество8. делать балансе ( в танце) -
18 вне всякого сомнения
•Those meteorites that were actually seen to fall established beyond question (or doubt) that extraterrestrial rocks were arriving from space.
•The tests confirm beyond any reasonable (or possible) doubt that the dipolarionic formulation is the best description.
* * *Вне всякого сомненияOne area to be criticized with respect to furnaces, is most assuredly, the lack of control.The performance of inline arrays is decidedly inferior to that of staggered arrays.By far the greatest number of high temperature vessels in industry operate under relatively stable conditions.Beyond dispute, three-dimensional fluid flow computations are here to stay and extensive further growth is expected.Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > вне всякого сомнения
-
19 unión
f.1 union, concord, togetherness.2 union, binding, binding together, linkage.3 union, labor union, trade union.4 link, bonding, join, bond.5 union, coalition, league.6 union, adherence, cling, coalescence.7 junction, bind.8 henosis, junctura.* * *1 union\en unión de together withla unión hace la fuerza there is strength in numbers* * *noun f.1) union2) joint* * *SF1) (=acción)a) [de puntos, extremos] joining together; [de empresas] mergerla operación consiste en la unión de los extremos del hueso fracturado — the operation consists of joining together the two ends of the fractured bone
crearon el nombre de la empresa mediante la unión de sus apellidos — the name of the company was created by joining together o combining their surnames
b)en unión con o de — (=acompañado de) together with, along with; (=en asociación con) in association with, together with
viajó a París en unión de sus colegas — he travelled to Paris together with o along with his associates
la construcción del centro fue concedida a Unitex, en unión con otra empresa — the contract to build the centre was awarded to Unitex, in association with another firm
2) (=cualidad) unity3) (=organización)Unión General de Trabajadores — Esp socialist union confederation
Unión Soviética — ( Hist) Soviet Union
4) [de pareja] (=matrimonio) union5) (Mec) jointpunto de unión — junction ( entre between)
* * *1)a) ( acción)b) ( agrupación) associationc) la Unión Americana (Méx) (Period) ( Estados Unidos) the United States2) ( relación) union, relationship; ( matrimonio) union, marriage3) ( juntura) joint* * *= coming together, joining together, linkage, confounding, piecing together, union, junction, marriage, togetherness, bringing together, conjoining.Ex. Knowledge generally evolves from an identifiable base, and often new subjects arise from the coming together of two previously separate subjects.Ex. Such schemes are essentially analytical in nature, but do not permit any synthesis or joining together of concepts that have been divided from one another.Ex. We have just stated that the linkage of varying titles and varying forms of entry have to be done on the same basis in an automated situation as in a manual situation.Ex. The confounding of opposites is also common though, again, care has to be taken to see that we do not confound two subjects on which extensive literature exists.Ex. Progress in research is dependent on the piecing together of items of information from many sources.Ex. By such mutual assistance, the wits and endeavours of the world may no longer be as so many scattered coals, or firebrands, which, for want of union are soon quenched, whereas, being but laid together, they would have yielded a comfortable light and heat.Ex. People value the public library highly as an educational and community resource and the library acts as an 'information junction' to bind the community together.Ex. Multimedia encyclopedias on CD-ROM are a nearly perfect marriage of technology and content.Ex. Mayo maintained that workers are motivated by ' togetherness' and crave individual recognition within the group = Mayo mantenía que los trabajadores se motivan por la solidaridad y anhelan el reconocimiento individual dentro del grupo.Ex. I have already mentioned that the bringing together of the various editions is the real problem.Ex. This sign is in effect a prototypical example of the conjoining of words and images.----* falta de unión = disunity.* la unión hace la fuerza = strength in numbers, strength in numbers.* unión civil = civil union.* unión monetaria = monetary union.* Unión Monetaria Europea (UME) = European Monetary Union (EMU).* unión política = political union.* Unión Soviética, la = Soviet Union, the, USSR, the.* * *1)a) ( acción)b) ( agrupación) associationc) la Unión Americana (Méx) (Period) ( Estados Unidos) the United States2) ( relación) union, relationship; ( matrimonio) union, marriage3) ( juntura) joint* * *= coming together, joining together, linkage, confounding, piecing together, union, junction, marriage, togetherness, bringing together, conjoining.Ex: Knowledge generally evolves from an identifiable base, and often new subjects arise from the coming together of two previously separate subjects.
Ex: Such schemes are essentially analytical in nature, but do not permit any synthesis or joining together of concepts that have been divided from one another.Ex: We have just stated that the linkage of varying titles and varying forms of entry have to be done on the same basis in an automated situation as in a manual situation.Ex: The confounding of opposites is also common though, again, care has to be taken to see that we do not confound two subjects on which extensive literature exists.Ex: Progress in research is dependent on the piecing together of items of information from many sources.Ex: By such mutual assistance, the wits and endeavours of the world may no longer be as so many scattered coals, or firebrands, which, for want of union are soon quenched, whereas, being but laid together, they would have yielded a comfortable light and heat.Ex: People value the public library highly as an educational and community resource and the library acts as an 'information junction' to bind the community together.Ex: Multimedia encyclopedias on CD-ROM are a nearly perfect marriage of technology and content.Ex: Mayo maintained that workers are motivated by ' togetherness' and crave individual recognition within the group = Mayo mantenía que los trabajadores se motivan por la solidaridad y anhelan el reconocimiento individual dentro del grupo.Ex: I have already mentioned that the bringing together of the various editions is the real problem.Ex: This sign is in effect a prototypical example of the conjoining of words and images.* falta de unión = disunity.* la unión hace la fuerza = strength in numbers, strength in numbers.* unión civil = civil union.* unión monetaria = monetary union.* Unión Monetaria Europea (UME) = European Monetary Union (EMU).* unión política = political union.* Unión Soviética, la = Soviet Union, the, USSR, the.* * *A1(acción): la unión de las dos empresas the merger of the two companiescon la unión de nuestros esfuerzos by combining our effortsla unión de estos factores the combination of these factorsla unión hace la fuerza united we stand2 (agrupación) association3B (relación) union, relationship; (matrimonio) union, marriagede esta unión nacieron dos hijos two children were born of this unionC (juntura) jointCompuestos:(homosexual) ≈ civil partnership; (heterosexual) ≈ couple in a stable relationship ( who acquire legal rights and responsibilities)( AmL) unmarried union; cohabitation(UE) Union of Industrial and Employers' Confederations of Europe(UE) Economic and Monetary UnionEuropean Union(UE)Western European Union( Hist) Soviet Union* * *
unión sustantivo femenino
1a) ( acción):
la unión de estos factores the combination of these factors
c)◊ la Uunión Americana (Méx) (Period) the United States
2 ( relación) union, relationship;
( matrimonio) union, marriage
3 ( juntura) joint
unión sustantivo femenino
1 (coalición) union
Unión Europea, European Union
2 (asociación) association
unión de consumidores, consumers' association
3 (cohesión) unity
4 (matrimonio, ligazón) union
5 (juntura) joint
' unión' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
abogada
- abogado
- camaradería
- cohabitación
- conflictividad
- fracturar
- revigorizar
- sindical
- sindicarse
- sindicato
- soldadura
- UE
- UEFA
- unidad
- URSS
- alianza
- casamiento
- conjunción
- empate
- enlace
- gremial
- gremio
- llamar
- sindicalismo
- sindicalizarse
- Unión Europea
- Unión Soviética
- vínculo
English:
connection
- EMU
- EU
- European Union
- inflame
- intervene
- mating
- membership
- mismatch
- rep
- togetherness
- trade union
- trades union
- union
- Union Jack
- belong
- blue
- capacity
- European
- join
- joint
- labor union
- marriage
- official
- rank
- shop
- Soviet
- student
- trade
- TUC
- USSR
* * *unión nf1. [asociación] union;acudió a la ceremonia en unión de su familia she attended the ceremony together with her familyunión aduanera customs union;Unión Africana African Union;Méx la Unión Americana the United States;la Unión Europea the European Union;Unión Monetaria Monetary Union;Antes Unión Soviética Soviet Union2. [acción] joining, union;un compuesto es el resultado de la unión de dos palabras a compound is the result of the joining of two words;la unión de las dos empresas the union o merger of the two companies3. [juntura, adherimiento] join, joint4. [cohesión] unity;hay que potenciar la unión entre los ciudadanos we must foster a sense of unity among citizens;la unión hace la fuerza unity is strength5. [matrimonio] marriage, unionunión de hecho unmarried couple* * *f1 union;la unión hace la fuerza united we stand2 TÉC joint* * *1) : union2) juntura: joint, coupling* * *unión n1. (enlace) union2. (unidad) unity -
20 TAK
* * *n. hold, grasp.* * *n. [taka], a taking hold, a hold; urðu menn konungi því verri til taks sem hann þurfti meirr, i. e. they slipped out of the king’s hold, forsook him, Fb. ii. 304: a hold, grasp, esp. in wrestling or fighting (cp. Dan. tav, tage et tav), laust hann hestinn af takinu, Rb. 299, Grett. 69 new Ed.; af mæði ok stórum tökum, Bs. i. 634; halda fasta-tökum, with a firm grasp; lausa-tök, q. v.; Grettis-tak, the lift of Grettir the Strong, a name for those boulders which would require Herculean strength to lift them; so also, það er tak, ‘tis a heavy task, as of cleaning an Augean stable.2. medic. a stitch, also tak-sótt.II. as a law term, chattels; hann skal færa tak sitt ok hey af landi því, er hann bjó á, Grág. ii. 249 (cp. tak-fæð ‘lack of holding,’ i. e. poverty; fá-tækr, ‘few-holding,’ i. e. with few means, poor); í-tak, q. v.2. seizure; dæmdum mér Heilagri kirkju fyrir takit þrjár merkr, D. N. iv. 231.3. bail, security; æsta taks, D. I. i. 66, N. G. L. i. 47, passim; synja taks, to refuse bail, id.; nú æstir maðr taks annan, nú skal engi öðrum taks synja, fá honum tak samdægris, … varðar bú hans taki … þá skal hann vera mánað í því taki ef hann æstir laga-taks, 47; ganga í tak fyrir e-n, segjask ór taki … eigi skal hann lengr í taki vera, … nú ef hann á kaupskip þat er sessum má telja, þá má þat varða taki fyrir hann, l. c. ch. 102; færa tak fyrir ( to bring bail), … fá mann í tak fyrir sik, 154; leiða mann í tak fyrir sik, ii. 264; sækja þat mál með takum sem aðrar fjársóknir, 191; ok færi sá, er taksettr var, tak með fullum vörðslum, id.; sitja í tökum, to sit as bail; þá skal þræll í tökum sitja til hann hefir undan færzk eða hann er sannr at, i. 85; selja, skjóta fé undan tökum, 154; ok fé hans allt í tökum á meðan, 306; laga-tak, legal bail; kyrrsetu-tak, security; brautar-tak, 44; trausta-tak, in the phrase, taka e-ð trausta-taki; taks-æsting, a demanding bail, D.I. i. 66: the word is chiefly a Norse law term, and hardly occurs in the Icel. law, of the Commonwealth.
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